The Four Classic Chinese Novels — Discover the 中国四大名著
Introduction and Origin “Four Classic Chinese Novels”
The Four Classic Chinese Novels (中国四大名著 ; Zhōngguó Sì Dà Míngzhù) refer to the four Chinese long novels Water Margin (水浒传 ; Shuǐ Hǔ Zhuàn), Romance of the Three Kingdoms (三国演义 ; Sān Guó Yǎn Yì), Journey to the West (西游记 ; Xī Yóu Jì), and Dream of the Red Chamber (红楼梦 ; Hóng Lóu Mèng), written by Shi Nai’an, Luo Guanzhong, Wu Cheng’en, and Cao Xueqin respectively.
To trace the origin of the term “Four Classic Chinese Novels,” we must first mention the “Four Masterpieces (四大奇书 ; Sì Dà Qí Shū).” The concept of the “Four Masterpieces” emerged in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, referring collectively to four long novels of the Ming dynasty: Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, and The Plum in the Golden Vase (金瓶梅 ; Jīn Píng Méi). During the late Ming period, in the Tianqi and Chongzhen years, these four books were often mentioned together by novel critics. In the early Qing dynasty, Li Yu (李渔 ; Lǐ Yú) clearly proposed the concept of the “Four Masterpieces.” In the preface he wrote for the Lianghengtang edition of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, he said: “I once heard that Feng Ziyou of Wu Jun praised and named the Four Masterpieces under Heaven as Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Water Margin, Journey to the West, and The Plum in the Golden Vase. I also admire his praise as quite fitting.” After Li Yu, “Four Masterpieces” became a common term in novel criticism.
After Dream of the Red Chamber (红楼梦) by Cao Xueqin was published in the mid-Qing dynasty, The Plum in the Golden Vase (金瓶梅) was gradually replaced by it, and the commonly accepted term “Four Classic Chinese Novels” slowly formed. Among them, Romance of the Three Kingdoms (三国演义) represents historical and romantic novels, Water Margin (水浒传) represents heroic tales, Journey to the West (西游记) represents novels of gods and demons, and Dream of the Red Chamber (红楼梦) represents emotional or social life novels.
Today, some publishers compile these four novels into one published series under the title “Four Classic Chinese Novels Series.” After the founding of China (新中国), the People’s Literature Publishing House was also the first to publish these four novels.
The Four Classic Chinese Novels are masterpieces in the history of Chinese literature and are valuable treasures of world cultural heritage. Their status in world literary history is difficult to compare absolutely, as each holds extremely high literary and artistic achievements. Their profound depictions and deep thoughts have been acknowledged by generations of readers. The stories, scenes, and characters have had a deep impact on the thinking, values, and worldview of the Chinese people, and they can be called the four great pillars in the history of Chinese literature.
1. Water Margin《水浒传》
Water Margin (水浒传 ; Shuǐ Hǔ Zhuàn) is a long novel written by Shi Nai’an (施耐庵 ; Shī Nài’ān) at the end of the Yuan and beginning of the Ming dynasty (existing editions mostly attribute the work to Shi Nai’an, Luo Guanzhong, or both). It is the first chapter-style novel in Chinese history written in the vernacular language (白话文 ; bái huà wén).
The entire book tells the grand tale of the 108 Liangshan heroes, led by Song Jiang, who rose against corrupt officials and traitors. It covers the rise of the Liangshan forces in the marshes, their acceptance of amnesty from the Song dynasty, and their subsequent battles to defend the Song.
Water Margin (水浒传) is one of the Four Classic Chinese Novels. Since its publication, it has had a major impact on society and became a model for Chinese novel writing in later generations. It is one of the most widely spread and popular Chinese novels, also known for its epic qualities and deep influence on Chinese narrative literature and even across East Asia.
2. Romance of the Three Kingdoms《三国演义》
Romance of the Three Kingdoms (三国演义 ; Sān Guó Yǎn Yì) (also known as Sanguozhi Yanyi 《三国志演义》or Sanguozhi Tongsu Yanyi 《三国志通俗演义》) is a chapter-style historical romance novel written by Luo Guanzhong (罗贯中 ; Luó Guànzhōng) at the end of the Yuan and beginning of the Ming dynasty. It is a literary adaptation based on Records of the Three Kingdoms (三国志) by Chen Shou (陈寿 ; Chén Shòu), with annotations by Pei Songzhi (裴松之 ; Péi Sōngzhī), and incorporates folklore and legends about the Three Kingdoms period. Together with the other three works, it is known as one of the Four Classic Chinese Novels.
The novel is an artistic re-creation by Luo Guanzhong based on Three Kingdoms stories passed down through folk tales (话本 ; huà běn), opera (戏曲 ; xì qǔ), and legendary stories from the Song and Yuan periods. Its foundation lies in Records of the Three Kingdoms (三国志) by Chen Shou of the Jin dynasty, and the annotations by Pei Songzhi of the Southern Song dynasty.
The content of the novel is broadly divided into five main parts:
- The Yellow Turban Rebellion,
- The chaos caused by Dong Zhuo,
- The rivalry among warlords,
- The balance of power between the Three Kingdoms, and
- The reunification by the Jin dynasty.
It portrays nearly a century of historical turmoil from the end of the Eastern Han to the beginning of the Western Jin. Its focus is on war stories, including the political and military conflicts among warlords and the major states: Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. Eventually, Sima Yan unified the three kingdoms and founded the Jin dynasty.
This novel reflects various conflicts and social upheavals of the Three Kingdoms period, capturing significant historical changes and presenting legendary heroes who shook the world.
Since its completion, many editions have circulated, including the famous Jiajing Renwu (嘉靖壬午 ; jiā jìng rén wǔ) edition from the Ming dynasty. In the late Ming and early Qing, Mao Zonggang (毛宗岗 ; Máo Zōnggǎng) re-edited the chapters, refined the language, and replaced poems and prose. The Mao Zonggang edition is considered the highest-quality and most widely spread version.
Romance of the Three Kingdoms is the first chapter novel in Chinese literary history, a pioneer of historical romance, and a long novel of humanistic value. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, it was even called “the number one book for scholars.” Since publication, it has inspired countless artistic and cultural works. Its influence is so great that the “artistic truth” it conveys is often seen as more real than historical fact.
Authorship Controversy
Like many other chapter-style novels (章回小说 ; zhāng huí xiǎo shuō) that are the product of multiple generations’ contributions, the authorship of Romance of the Three Kingdoms remains debated among scholars. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the public tended to believe that Luo Guanzhong was the author. However, some also claimed Wang Shifu was the writer. This claim has never been definitively proven, and the view that Luo Guanzhong is the author remains the most widely accepted.
Since the 1980s, academic circles have seen new opinions rejecting Luo Guanzhong’s authorship. The debate between “pro-Luo Guanzhong” and “anti-Luo Guanzhong” factions continues today.
The exact date of completion is also debated. However, certainly, the novel is not the result of a single author’s effort, but the outcome of oral transmission and development over a long period among various communities, especially the common people. The number of contributors is incalculable. Even if one person compiled the final version, they were just one of many contributors to the work’s creation.
Based on existing literary records and printed versions, it is concluded that Romance of the Three Kingdoms was not widely printed and distributed until the mid-Ming dynasty when its social influence also began to manifest.
3. Journey to the West《西游记》
Journey to the West (西游记 ; Xī Yóu Jì) is the first romantic novel of gods and demons (神魔小说 ; shén mó xiǎo shuō) in the form of a chapter-style long story in ancient Chinese history. The earliest known edition is the Newly Carved and Illustrated Large Character Edition of Journey to the West (新刻出像官板大字西游记), published in the 20th year of the Wanli era (1592) by Shide Hall in Jinling, which did not name the author.
According to the Huai’an Gazetteer (淮安府志), which states “Wu Cheng’en is the author of Journey to the West,” figures such as Lu Xun (鲁迅 ; Lǔ Xùn) and Dong Zuobin (董作宾 ; Dǒng Zuòbīn) identified Wu Cheng’en (吳承恩 ; Wú Chéng’ēn) as the true author.
The novel mainly tells the story of the birth of Sun Wukong, his apprenticeship under Patriarch Bodhi, his havoc in the Heavenly Palace, and his eventual meeting with Tang Sanzang, Zhu Bajie, Sha Wujing, and the Dragon Horse, embarking together on a pilgrimage to the West to obtain scriptures. Along the journey, they encounter various hardships and demons, undergo 81 trials (九九八十一难), and ultimately reach the Western Pure Land, meet the Buddha, and become five holy beings.
The novel was inspired by the real historical event of “Xuanzang’s Journey to the West” and was artistically enriched by the author to reflect social life during the Ming dynasty.
Journey to the West is a classic of the gods-and-demons genre and a pinnacle of long romantic literature in ancient China. Together with the other three novels, it is one of the Four Classic Chinese Novels.
Since publication, Journey to the West has widely circulated, with numerous versions appearing. In the Ming dynasty, there were six printed editions; in the Qing dynasty, seven printed and handwritten versions, and thirteen editions were known only from records.
After the Opium War (鸦片战争), many Chinese classical works were translated into Western languages. Journey to the West gradually became known in Europe and America and has been translated into English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Sign Language, Esperanto, Swahili, Russian, Czech, Romanian, Polish, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, and others.
4. Dream of the Red Chamber《红楼梦》
Dream of the Red Chamber (红楼梦 ; Hóng Lóu Mèng) is a chapter-style long novel from ancient China, one of the Four Classic Chinese Novels. The circulating version has a total of 120 chapters. The first 80 chapters are generally attributed to Qing dynasty author Cao Xueqin (曹雪芹 ; Cáo Xuěqín), while the remaining 40 chapters were written by an unknown author and compiled by Cheng Weiyuan (程伟元 ; Chéng Wěiyuán) and Gao E (高鹗 ; Gāo È).
The novel is set against the rise and fall of four great families—Jia (贾 ; Jiǎ), Shi (史 ; Shǐ), Wang (王 ; Wáng), and Xue (薛 ; Xuē)—and uses the perspective of Jia Baoyu (贾宝玉), an aristocratic young man, to tell the tragic love and marriage story involving Jia Baoyu, Lin Daiyu (林黛玉), and Xue Baochai (薛宝钗). It depicts the lives of women in the inner chambers, presenting the beauty and tragedy of true humanity, and serves as an epic that illustrates the beauty of women and various aspects of life in ancient Chinese society from different angles.
Dream of the Red Chamber exists in two main versions: “Chengben (程本)” and “Zhiben (脂本)”. Chengben is the printed version compiled by Cheng Weiyuan, while Zhiben is the handwritten version annotated by Zhi Yanzhai over various periods. Zhiben became the foundation of Chengben.
Dream of the Red Chamber is a highly influential novel worldwide, an encyclopedia of feudal Chinese society, and a grand work embodying traditional culture. The author wrote with the intention of “speaking generally about love and recording real events,” following consistent logic and events, avoiding old patterns, and using a fresh, unique approach to achieve remarkable artistic accomplishments. Its distinctive writing style—“hiding the truth and preserving false words”—deeply inspires future readers and sparks extensive speculation. Since the 20th century, the novel’s profound thoughts and outstanding artistic achievements have given rise to a specialized academic field called Redology, the study of Dream of the Red Chamber.
And, let us conclude before we finish…
The Four Classic Chinese Novels—Water Margin (水浒传), Romance of the Three Kingdoms (三国演义), Journey to the West (西游记), and Dream of the Red Chamber (红楼梦)—are not only pillars of classical literature reflecting the richness of Chinese culture but also deeply influential in the development of world literature. Each of these works, with distinct themes and styles, offers profound insight into social life, moral values, and human struggles in the context of history, mythology, or personal experience.
Water Margin (水浒传) portrays heroism and the fight against injustice; Romance of the Three Kingdoms (三国演义) reflects historical upheaval and political strategy; Journey to the West (西游记) takes readers on a spiritual journey full of challenges; and Dream of the Red Chamber (红楼梦) presents deep emotions and social dynamics in feudal China. These works not only offer captivating stories but also introduce various perspectives on values, morality, and life across different social strata.
As literary works are translated into many languages and studied to this day, they are an integral part of China’s priceless cultural heritage, continuously influencing global literature, philosophy, and art. With diverse themes and rich depictions, these novels have established themselves as major milestones in the literary history of China and the world.